Occupational Coding
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To gather respondents’ employment information, we followed the standard practice of asking about respondents’ work in several different ways: the name of their profession or occupation, the name of their job or position (dolzhnost) (which often includes information about workers’ level of skill or responsibility), what duties they normally perform, etc. Their verbatim answers were put into a computer file as long string variables. With non-project funds, a computer program was developed which, functioning like a word processor thesaurus, proposed codes consistent with codes approved for similar answers in the past. However, we did not allow the computer program to assign codes automatically since the program might miss nuances in the answers. Rather, a coder was required to approve the proposed code.
Occupations were coded according to the four-digit International Standard Classification of Occupations: ISCO-88 (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990). Considerable care was devoted to taking into account the idiosyncrasies of the Russian labor market. For example, medsestra is normally translated to mean “nurse.” The ISCO classifies nurses as professionals and defines professionals as those involved in “Increasing the existing stock of knowledge, applying scientific and artistic concepts and theories to the solution of problems, and teaching about the foregoing in a systematic manner. Most occupations in this major group require skills at the fourth ISCO skill level.” Since Russian nurses do not normally function at this level and were never considered to be professionals in the former Soviet Union, they were classified at the level that the ISCO assigns to nurses’ aides in the West.
The four-digit codes can be collapsed into one-, two-, or three-digit codes. The following list provides the one-digit codes. This does not, in our estimation, constitute a valid ordinal scale. For example, many professionals also perform secondary managerial functions and may have more authority over other employees than some people who are classified as managers. Crafts workers may well be more skilled, educated, and highly paid than some clerks.
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- Legislators, Senior Managers, Officials
- Professionals
- Technicians and Associate Professionals
- Clerks
- Service Workers and Market Workers
- Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers
- Craft and Related Trades
- Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers
- Elementary (Unskilled) Occupations
- Army
ISCO Four-Digit Occupation Codes
| 1110 | Legislators |
| 1120 | Senior government officials |
| 1130 | Traditional chiefs and heads of villages |
| 1141 | Senior officials of political-party organizations; revolutionaries |
| 1142 | Senior officials of employers’, workers’ and other economic-interest organizations |
| 1143 | Senior officials of humanitarian and other special-interest organizations |
| 1210 | Directors and chief executives |
| 1221 | Production and operations department managers in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing |
| 1222 | Production and operations department managers in manufacturing |
| 1223 | Production and operations department managers in construction |
| 1224 | Production and operations department managers in wholesale and retail trade |
| 1225 | Production and operations department managers in restaurants and hotels |
| 1226 | Production and operations department managers in transport, storage and communications |
| 1227 | Production and operations department managers in business services |
| 1228 | Production and operations department managers in personal care, cleaning and related services |
| 1229 | Production and operations department managers not elsewhere classified |
| 1231 | Finance and administration department managers |
| 1232 | Personnel and industrial relations department managers |
| 1233 | Sales and marketing department managers |
| 1234 | Advertising and public relations department managers |
| 1235 | Supply and distribution department managers |
| 1236 | Computing services department managers |
| 1237 | Research and development department managers |
| 1239 | Other department managers not elsewhere classified |
| 1299 | Landowners; gentry (pomeshchik) |
| 1311 | General managers in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing |
| 1312 | General managers in manufacturing |
| 1313 | General managers in construction |
| 1314 | General managers in wholesale and retail trade |
| 1315 | Commandants (not military); administrator with higher or specialized secondary education |
| 1316 | General managers in transport, storage and communications |
| 1317 | General managers of business services |
| 1318 | General managers in personal care, cleaning and related services |
| 1319 | General managers not elsewhere classified |
| 1510 | Master with higher education; steward; bailiff (prikazchik) |
| 1520 | Landowner; khoziain; edinolichnik; building owner |
| 1530 | Coop owner |
| 1540 | Dvorianin; noblemen; shliakhta; prince; statskii covetnik |
| 1550 | Small business owner |
| 1590 | Other |
| 2000 | “Intelligentsia;” scientific worker, NEC |
| 2111 | Physicists and astronomers |
| 2112 | Meteorologists |
| 2113 | Chemists |
| 2114 | Geologists and geophysicists |
| 2121 | Mathematicians and related professionals |
| 2122 | Statisticians |
| 2131 | Computer systems designers and analysts |
| 2132 | Computer programmers |
| 2139 | Computing professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 2141 | Architects, town and traffic planners |
| 2142 | Civil engineers |
| 2143 | Electrical engineers |
| 2144 | Electronics and telecommunications engineers |
| 2145 | Mechanical engineers |
| 2146 | Chemical engineers |
| 2147 | Mining engineers, metallurgists and related professionals |
| 2148 | Cartographers and surveyors |
| 2149 | Architects, engineers and related professionals not elsewhere specified, engineers with higher education NEC |
| 2211 | Biologists, botanists, zoologists and related professionals |
| 2212 | Pharmacologists, pathologists and related professionals |
| 2213 | Agronomists and related professionals |
| 2221 | Medical doctors |
| 2222 | Dentists |
| 2223 | Veterinarians |
| 2224 | Pharmacists |
| 2229 | Health professionals (except nursing) not elsewhere classified (medik with higher education) |
| 2230 | Nursing and midwifery professionals |
| 2300 | Teachers with higher education |
| 2310 | College, university and higher education teaching professionals (including prepodanateli in VUZ) |
| 2320 | Secondary education teaching professionals; teachers (uchitelia) |
| 2331 | Primary education teaching professionals |
| 2332 | Pre-primary education teaching professionals |
| 2340 | Special education teaching professionals |
| 2351 | Education methods specialists |
| 2352 | School inspectors |
| 2359 | Other teaching professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 2411 | Accountants |
| 2412 | Personnel and careers professionals |
| 2419 | Business professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 2421 | Lawyers |
| 2422 | Judges |
| 2429 | Legal professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 2431 | Archivists and curators |
| 2432 | Librarians and related information professionals |
| 2400 | Art critics |
| 2441 | Economists |
| 2442 | Sociologists, anthropologists and related professionals |
| 2443 | Philosophers, historians and political scientists |
| 2444 | Philologists, translators and interpreters |
| 2445 | Psychologists |
| 2446 | Social work professions |
| 2451 | Authors, journalist and other writers |
| 2452 | Sculptor, painters and related artists |
| 2453 | Composers, musicians and singers |
| 2454 | Choreographers and dancers |
| 2455 | Film, stage and related actors and directors |
| 2460 | Religious professionals |
| 3111 | Chemical, physical and science technicians |
| 3112 | Civil engineering technicians |
| 3113 | Electrical engineering technicians |
| 3114 | Electronics and telecommunications engineering technicians |
| 3115 | Mechanical engineering technicians |
| 3116 | Chemical engineering technicians |
| 3117 | Mining and metallurgic technicians |
| 3118 | Draughtspersons |
| 3119 | Physical and engineering science technicians not elsewhere classified; engineers without higher education, NEC; lab workers |
| 3121 | Computer assistants |
| 3122 | Computer equipment operators |
| 3123 | Industrial robot controllers |
| 3131 | Photographers and image and sound recording equipment operators |
| 3132 | Broadcasting and telecommunications equipment operators |
| 3133 | Medical equipment operators |
| 3139 | Optical and electronic equipment operators not elsewhere classified |
| 3141 | Ships’ engineers |
| 3142 | Ships’ deck officers and pilots |
| 3143 | Aircraft pilots and related associate professionals |
| 3144 | Air traffic controllers |
| 3145 | Air traffic safety technicians |
| 3151 | Building and fire inspectors |
| 3152 | Safety, health and quality inspectors |
| 3211 | Life science technicians |
| 3212 | Agronomy and forestry technicians |
| 3213 | Farming and forestry advisors |
| 3221 | Medical assistants |
| 3222 | Sanitarians |
| 3223 | Dieticians and nutritionists |
| 3224 | Optometrists and opticians |
| 3225 | Dental assistants |
| 3226 | Physiotherapists and related associate professionals |
| 3227 | Veterinary assistants |
| 3228 | Pharmaceutical assistants |
| 3229 | Modern health associate professionals (except nursing) not elsewhere classified (medik with secondary education) |
| 3231 | Nursing associate professionals; nurses without higher education, NEC |
| 3232 | Midwifery associate professionals |
| 3241 | Traditional medicine practitioners |
| 3242 | Faith healers |
| 3310 | Teachers with less than higher education |
| 3320 | Pre-primary education teaching associate professionals |
| 3330 | Special education teaching associate professionals |
| 3340 | Other teaching associate professionals; vocational education masters |
| 3411 | Securities and finance dealers and brokers |
| 3412 | Insurance representatives |
| 3413 | Estate agents |
| 3414 | Travel consultants and organizers |
| 3415 | Technical and commercial sales representatives |
| 3416 | Buyers; purchasing agent |
| 3417 | Appraisers, valuers and auctioneers |
| 3419 | Finance and sales associate professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 3421 | Trade brokers |
| 3422 | Clearing and forwarding agents |
| 3423 | Employment agents and labor contractors |
| 3429 | Business services agents and trade brokers not elsewhere classified |
| 3431 | Administrative secretaries and related associate professionals |
| 3432 | Legal and related business associate professionals |
| 3433 | Bookkeepers |
| 3434 | Statistical, mathematical and related associate professionals |
| 3439 | Administrative associate professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 3441 | Customs and border inspectors |
| 3442 | Government tax and excise officials |
| 3443 | Government social benefits officials |
| 3444 | Government licensing officials |
| 3449 | Customs, tax and related government associate professionals not elsewhere classified |
| 3450 | Police inspectors and detectives |
| 3460 | Social work associate professionals |
| 3471 | Decorators and professional designers |
| 3472 | Radio, television and other announcers |
| 3473 | Street, night-club and related musicians, singers and dancers |
| 3474 | Clowns magicians, acrobats and related associate professionals |
| 3475 | Athletes, sports persons and related associate professionals |
| 3479 | Artistic directors (khudruk); cultural-educational workers |
| 3480 | Religious associate professionals |
| 4000 | Sluzhashchie (non-manual workers, often implies specialized education) |
| 4111 | Stenographers and typists |
| 4112 | Word-processor and related operators |
| 4113 | Data entry operators |
| 4114 | Calculating machine operators |
| 4115 | Secretaries |
| 4121 | Accounting and bookkeeping clerks |
| 4122 | Statistical and finance clerks |
| 4131 | Stock clerks |
| 4132 | Production clerks |
| 4133 | Transport clerks |
| 4141 | Library and filing clerks |
| 4142 | Mail carriers and sorting clerks |
| 4143 | Coding, proof-reading and related clerks |
| 4144 | Scribes and elated workers |
| 4190 | Other office clerks |
| 4211 | Cashiers and ticket clerks |
| 4212 | Tellers and other counter clerks |
| 4213 | Bookmakers and croupiers |
| 4214 | Pawnbrokers and money-lenders |
| 4215 | Debt-collectors and related workers |
| 4221 | Travel agency and related clerks |
| 4222 | Receptionists and information clerks |
| 4223 | Telephone switchboard operators |
| 5100 | Servants |
| 5111 | Travel attendants and travel stewards |
| 5112 | Transport conductors |
| 5113 | Travel guides |
| 5121 | Housekeepers and related workers |
| 5122 | Cooks |
| 5123 | Waiters, waitresses and bartenders |
| 5131 | Child-care workers |
| 5132 | Institution-based personal care workers |
| 5133 | Home-based personal care workers |
| 5139 | Personal care and related workers not elsewhere classified |
| 5141 | Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians and related workers |
| 5142 | Companions and valets |
| 5143 | Undertakers and embalmers |
| 5149 | Other personal services workers not elsewhere classified |
| 5151 | Astrologers and related workers |
| 5152 | Fortune-tellers, palmists and related workers |
| 5161 | Fire-fighters |
| 5162 | Police officers |
| 5163 | Prison guards |
| 5169 | Protective services workers not elsewhere classified |
| 5210 | Fashion and other models |
| 5220 | Shop salespersons and demonstrators |
| 5230 | Stall and market salespersons |
| 6111 | Field crop and vegetable growers |
| 6112 | Tree and shrub crop growers |
| 6113 | Gardeners, horticultural and nursery growers |
| 6114 | Mixed-crop growers |
| 6121 | Dairy and livestock producers |
| 6122 | Poultry producers |
| 6123 | Apiarists and sericulturists |
| 6124 | Mixed-animal producers |
| 6129 | Market-oriented animal producers and related workers not elsewhere classified |
| 6130 | Market-oriented crop and animal producers |
| 6141 | Forestry workers and loggers |
| 6142 | Charcoal burners and related workers |
| 6151 | Aquatic-life cultivation workers |
| 6152 | Inland and coastal waters fishery workers |
| 6153 | Deep-sea fishery workers |
| 6154 | Hunters and trappers |
| 6210 | Subsistence agricultural and fishery workers |
| 7000 | Masters; brigadiers NEC (not in agriculture) |
| 7100 | Construction workers NECX |
| 7111 | Miners and quarry workers |
| 7112 | Shot firers and blasters |
| 7113 | Stone-splitters, cutters and carvers |
| 7121 | Builders, traditional materials |
| 7122 | Bricklayers and stonemasons |
| 7123 | Concrete placers, concrete finishers and related workers |
| 7124 | Carpenters and joiners |
| 7129 | Building frame and related trades workers not elsewhere classified; prorab (construction superintendents) |
| 7131 | Roofers |
| 7132 | Floor layers and tile setters |
| 7133 | Plasterers |
| 7134 | Insulation workers |
| 7135 | Glaziers |
| 7136 | Plumbers and pipe fitters |
| 7137 | Building and related electricians |
| 7139 | Germetchik and other workers in the final stages of construction |
| 7141 | Painters and related workers |
| 7142 | Varnishers and related painters |
| 7143 | Building structure cleaners |
| 7211 | Metal molders and coremakers |
| 7212 | Welders and flame cutters |
| 7213 | Sheet-metal workers |
| 7214 | Structural-metal preparers and erectors |
| 7215 | Riggers and cable-splicers |
| 7216 | Underwater workers |
| 7221 | Blacksmiths, hammer-smiths and forging-press workers |
| 7222 | Tool-makers and related workers |
| 7223 | Tokar (7213, lathe operator) |
| 7224 | Shlifovshchitsa (grinder/polisher) |
| 7231 | Mekhanik (mechanic) |
| 7232 | Aircraft engine mechanics and fitters |
| 7233 | Agricultural- or industrial-machinery mechanics and fitters |
| 7241 | Slesar (locksmith) |
| 7242 | Electronics fitters |
| 7243 | Electronics mechanics and servicers |
| 7244 | Telegraph and telephone installers and servicers |
| 7245 | Electrical line installers, repairer and cable jointers |
| 7311 | Precision-instrument makers and repairers |
| 7312 | Musical-instrument makers and tuners |
| 7313 | Jewelry and precious-metal workers |
| 7321 | Abrasive wheel formers, potters and related workers |
| 7322 | Glass-makers, cutters, grinders and finishers |
| 7323 | Glass engravers and etchers |
| 7324 | Glass, ceramics and related decorative painters |
| 7331 | Handicraft workers in wood and related materials |
| 7332 | Handicraft workers in textile, leather and related materials |
| 7341 | Compositors, typesetter and related workers |
| 7342 | Stereotypers and electrotypers |
| 7343 | Printing engravers and etchers |
| 7344 | Photographic and related workers |
| 7345 | Bookbinders and related workers |
| 7346 | Silk-screen, block and textile printers |
| 7411 | Butchers, fishmongers and related food preparers |
| 7412 | Bakers, pastry-cooks and confectionery makers |
| 7413 | Dairy-product makers |
| 7414 | Fruit, vegetable and related preservers |
| 7415 | Food and beverage tasters and graders |
| 7416 | Tobacco preparers and tobacco products makers |
| 7421 | Wood treaters; coopers (cask makers) |
| 7422 | Cabinet-makers and related workers |
| 7423 | Woodworking-machine setters and setter-operators |
| 7424 | Basketry weavers, brush makers and related workers |
| 7431 | Fibre-preparers |
| 7432 | Weavers, knitters and related workers |
| 7433 | Tailors, dressmakers and hatters |
| 7434 | Furriers and related workers |
| 7435 | Textile, leather and related pattern-makers and cutters |
| 7436 | Sewers, embroiderers and related workers |
| 7437 | Upholsterers and related workers |
| 7441 | Pelt dressers, tanners and fellmongers |
| 7442 | Shoe-makers and related workers |
| 8000 | Masters; brigadiers in plants and factories; skilled factory workers NEC |
| 8111 | Mining-plant operators |
| 8112 | Mineral-ore- and stone-processing-plant operators |
| 8113 | Well drillers and borers and related workers |
| 8121 | Ore and metal furnace operators |
| 8122 | Metal melters, casters, and rolling-mill operators |
| 8123 | Metal-heat-treating-plant operators |
| 8124 | Metal drawers and extruders |
| 8131 | Glass and ceramics kiln and related machine operators |
| 8139 | Glass, ceramics and related plant operators not elsewhere classified |
| 8141 | Wood-processing-plant operators |
| 8142 | Paper-pulp-plant operators |
| 8143 | Papermaking plant operators |
| 8151 | Crushing-, grinding- and chemical-mixing-machinery operators |
| 8152 | Chemical-heat-treating-plant operators |
| 8153 | Chemical-filtering- and separating-equipment operators |
| 8154 | Chemical-still and reactor operators (except petroleum and natural gas) |
| 8155 | Petroleum- and natural-gas-refining-plant operators |
| 8159 | Chemical-processing-plant operators not elsewhere classified |
| 8161 | Power-production-plant operators |
| 8162 | Steam-engine and boiler operators |
| 8163 | Incinerator, water-treatment and related plant operators |
| 8171 | Automated-assembly-line operators |
| 8172 | Industrial-robot operators |
| 8211 | Machine-tool operators (rotary milling) |
| 8212 | Cement and other mineral products machine operators |
| 8221 | Pharmaceutical- and toiletry-products machine operators |
| 8222 | Ammunition- and explosive-products machine operators |
| 8223 | Metal finishing-, plating- and coating-machine operators |
| 8224 | Photographic-products machine operators |
| 8229 | Chemical-products machine operators not elsewhere classified |
| 8231 | Rubber-products machine operators |
| 8232 | Plastic-products machine operators |
| 8240 | Wood-products machine operators |
| 8251 | Printing-machine operators |
| 8252 | Bookbinding-machine operators |
| 8253 | Paper-products machine operators |
| 8261 | Fibre-preparing-, spinning- and winding-machine operators |
| 8262 | Weaving- and knitting-machine operators |
| 8263 | Sewing-machine operators |
| 8264 | Bleaching-, dyeing- and cleaning-machine operators |
| 8265 | Fur- and leather-preparing-machine operators |
| 8266 | Shoemaking- and related machine operators |
| 8269 | Textile-, fur- and leather-products machine operators not elsewhere classified |
| 8271 | Meat- and fish-processing-machine operators |
| 8272 | Dairy-products machine operators |
| 8273 | Grain- and spice-milling-machine operators |
| 8274 | Baked-goods, cereal and chocolate-products machine operators |
| 8275 | Fruit-, vegetable- and nut-processing-machine operators |
| 8276 | Sugar production machine operators |
| 8277 | Tea-, coffee- and cocoa-processing-machine operators |
| 8278 | Brewers’, wine- and other beverage-machine operators |
| 8279 | Tobacco production machine operators |
| 8281 | Mechanical-machinery assemblers |
| 8282 | Electrical-equipment assemblers |
| 8283 | Electronic-equipment assemblers |
| 8284 | Metal-, rubber- and plastic-products assemblers |
| 8285 | Wood and related products assemblers |
| 8286 | Paperboard, textile and related products assemblers |
| 8290 | Other machine operators and assemblers |
| 8311 | Locomotive-engine drivers |
| 8312 | Railway brakers, signalers and shunters |
| 8320 | Drivers not specified |
| 8321 | Motor-cycle drivers |
| 8322 | Car, taxi and van drivers |
| 8323 | Bus and tram drivers |
| 8324 | Heavy truck and lorry drivers |
| 8329 | Drivers, not further specified |
| 8331 | Motorized farm and forestry plant operators |
| 8332 | Earth-moving- and related plant operators |
| 8333 | Crane, hoist and related plant operators |
| 8334 | Lifting-truck operators |
| 8340 | Ships’ deck crews and related workers |
| 9111 | Street food vendors |
| 9112 | Street vendors, non-food products |
| 9113 | Door-to-door and telephone salespersons |
| 9120 | Shoe cleaning and other street services elementary occupations |
| 9131 | Domestic helpers and cleaners |
| 9132 | Helpers and cleaners in offices, hotels and other establishments |
| 9133 | Hand-launderers and pressers |
| 9141 | Building caretakers |
| 9142 | Vehicle, window and related cleaners |
| 9151 | Messengers, package and luggage porters and deliverers |
| 9152 | Doorkeepers, watchpersons and related workers |
| 9153 | Vending-machine money collectors, meter readers and related workers |
| 9161 | Garbage collectors |
| 9162 | Sweepers and related laborers |
| 9211 | Farm-hands and laborers; dekkhanin; kolkhoznik; kpest’ianin; doyarka; teliatnitsa; vinarka; pastukh; chaban; polevod; osemenitel |
| 9212 | Forestry laborers |
| 9213 | Fishery, hunting and trapping laborers |
| 9311 | Mining and quarrying laborers |
| 9312 | Construction and maintenance laborers: roads, dams and similar constructions |
| 9313 | Building construction laborers |
| 9321 | Assembling laborers |
| 9322 | Hand packers and other manufacturing laborers |
| 9329 | Unskilled workers, NEC |
| 9331 | Hand or pedal vehicle drivers |
| 9332 | Drivers of animal-drawn vehicles and machinery |
| 9333 | Freight handlers |
| 0110 | Armed forces |